What Was the Favored Medium for Meso and South American Art?

Figure of a Babe Itch.
(1200-900 BCE) Olmec Mexican art.
Fine Arts Museums of San Francisco.

Evolution OF VISUAL ART
For details of fine art movements
and styles, encounter: History of Fine art.
For a quick guide to specific
styles, encounter: Art Movements.

Pre-Columbian Art (c.1200 BCE - 1535 CE)

Contents

• Definition
• History
• Mesoamerica
• Timeline of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican Art
- Ceremonial Architecture
- Sculpture
- Ceramics
- Codices and Murals
- Featherwork and Mosaics
• South America
• Chronology of Pre-Columbian South American Art
- Architecture
- Carvings
- Pottery
- Metalworking
- Textiles

Mitt Stencils in Cueva de las Manos
in Argentina, dating to seven,300 BCE.

Mixtec Mosaic mask of Tezcatlipoca
15th century. British Museum.

Double-headed serpent, Turquoise,
blood-red and white mosaic on woods.
Aztec (mayhap) Mixtec, (1400-1521).

Definition

The term "Pre-Columbian art" refers to the architecture, fine art and crafts of the native peoples of North, Central, and Southward America, and the islands of the Caribbean (c.13,000 BCE - 1500 CE) up to the time catamenia marked by the arrival of Christopher Columbus in the Americas. See too: American Indian art. The term "Mesoamerica" is synonymous with Fundamental America, describing a cultural region in the Americas, which extends roughly from central Mexico to Belize, Guatemala, El salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and northern Republic of costa rica.

History

The civilisations of Central America (Mesoamerica) and the Pacific Coast of South America were roughly contemporary with the European Christian era. Both were rapidly brought to an cease past the Castilian conquest following on the voyages of discovery of Columbus. The conquerors immediately found themselves in conflict with the original inhabitants. The soldiers were looters and treasure hunters looking for gilt. The priests were seeking to save human souls, and took with them the no less tearing methods of the Inquisition, and in the name of their religion they eventually destroyed a whole culture.

At that place were two empires, the Aztecs of Mesoamerica and the Incas of Peru. Both were agriculturally settled and competent, and supported fine art and architecture. The monuments left backside are impressively massive, yet the societies that produced them were surprisingly primitive. The Mayan culture of Mesoamerica fabricated advances in mathematics and astronomy, just it was overrun by Aztecs from the north in the eleventh and twelfth centuries, who in turn were conquered by the Spanish in 1519. The conquest of Peru followed in 1532.

The Pre-Columbian cultures seem to take been dominated by millenarianism - a belief that the end of the world was periodically imminent. This could only be averted by human sacrifice, and of class one time such a belief gains an clout there is no manner of disproving it. Their gods, were protrayed equally terrifying monsters whose hostility could only exist appeased past blood, by torture and sacrifice. Certain elements in Pre-Columbian superstition have never died out, and flagellation and other forms of self-torture were incorporated into a form of Christian ritual still peculiar to the sub-continent.

For post-Columbian art, run into: American Colonial Art (c.1670-1800) and American Art (1750-present).

Machu Picchu (15th Century Peru)
Pre-Columbian Inca site thousands
of anxiety up in the mountains.
The site was constructed in 1450
and abandonded in 1572.
It is thought the population
died of small pox.

Mesoamerica

Timeline of Pre-Columbian Mesoamerican Art

The Mesoamerican cultures are traditionally divided into 3 time periods, running from 1200-1580, as follows:

Pre-archetype (c.1200-200 CE)
This era was dominated by the Olmec civilization, which flourished nigh 1200-400 BCE. The Olmecs created jade figurines, and carved colossal heads upward to 8 feet high. The Central American tradition of constructing huge ceremonial complexes began with the Olmecs.

Archetype (c.200-900)
This catamenia was dominated by the Maya. Like the Mississippian cultures of North America such as the Natchez and Choctaw, the Maya lived in large, agronomical settlements, practising their own type of hieroglyphic writing too as advanced astronomy. Mayan art is mainly characterized by petroglyphs, a diverseness of stone art, some stone sculpture and wood-carving, besides every bit mural paintings (city of Bonampak c.750 CE).

Post-classic (c.900-1580)
This period was dominated first (c.900-1300) by the Toltec culture from the western region who carved massive, block-similar sculptures like those used as free-standing columns at Tula, Mexico. Then came the Mixtecs, whose central Mexcan civilisation was active in both pre-Aztec and post-Aztec eras, with their unique painting fashion in which all available space is covered with flat figures arranged in geometric patterns. The Aztec civilisation of primal and southern Mexico produced a variety of visual fine art, including: brighly coloured fresco painting, masks, ceremonial costumes, bracelets and necklaces, as well equally a range of clay, stone and wood sculpture. Aztec mosaic fine art was often used to decorate masks likewise as architecture.

Ceremonial Architecture

From effectually 2000 BCE the erection of large ceremonial buildings, usually clustered in a ceremonial centre circuitous, became central to Central American lodge. The principal blazon was a pyramidical platform mound - similar to that of the Egyptian Pyramids - but terminating in a apartment elevation, to which one to four flights of steps led, for the enactment of ritual practices: meet, for case, the pyramid at Teotihuacan (c.500 CE). Such pyramids in Mesoamerica were of a ceremonial rather than funerary part, and were cardinal to the performance of religious rites. (Run into as well: Religious art.) At Monte Alban in Oaxaca, and Palenque in the Maya Lowlands, these structures were plant also to contain rich burials of civic or religious dignitaries, simply these were of secondary importance to the main purpose of the pyramid. (For more about pyramids, run into: Ancient Egyptian Architecture from c.3000 BCE onwards.)

Inside Central America there were two main types of architectural style, especially clear in pyramid construction: the broad square talud-tablero of Mexico and the tall, narrow based Maya form. Corbel vaulting of overlapping, flat, balanced stones is also typical of Maya compages and was used extensively every bit a technique in the structure of palaces and temples. The true curvation was never known in the New World. Some other typical feature of the Central American cultural tradition was the ball-courtroom where the sacred brawl game was played. This made its first appearance, as did the pyramid, with Key America's first big civilization - the Olmec of the Mexican Gulf Coast. The ball-court was shaped like the majuscule letter 'I' with accentuated cross-pieces; later examples had stone rings at either cease through which the ball was passed. Spectators' seats were arranged each side of the main courtroom. Run into, for example, the Great Brawl Courtroom at Chichen Itza (c.500 CE).

Palaces and temples of the aristocracy and the single-storey living quarters and workshops of the artisans were organised in an orderly grid programme around the main ritual complex. The city of Teotihuacan in Mexico, which prospered around AD 500, is 1 of the most remarkable examples of a planned urban and religious eye.

Pre-Columbian architecture was an important influence on modern architects like Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959). See American Compages.

Sculpture

Art flourished mainly in the medium of sculpture in Central America. Figures and freizes, ranging in calibration from gigantic to very minor, are cardinal to the artistic consciousness of the cultural tradition. Serpents, skulls, snarling jaguars and the grim-looking pelting-god Tlaloc decorate many of the temples and palaces as whole sculpture or friezes.

Sculptural style varies, naturally, through time and with the dissimilar regions and dissimilar local cultures. The Olmec civilization, for instance, specialized in rock sculpture, producing giant basalt heads representing warriors or brawl-players, the largest of which are nine feet high and counterbalance up to twenty tons. Their heavy, near negroid looks are very different from the svelte, slender features of the Maya sculptured or stucco figures, with their tall, intricate head-dresses. In the Maya lowlands, the erection and elaborate etching of pillars or stelae typified the aesthetics of this particular culture at its height, recording astronomical, religious and civic events in hieroglyphic symbols. The stela itself often represented gods or dignitaries, their bodies covered with intricate flowing designs in bas-relief.

The plastic art of the Aztec Mexican cultures, terminating in the 16th century with the conquest of the Aztecs by the Castilian, produced finely executed sculptures of grim ferocious beings and animals and very naturalistic versions of rattlesnake, coyote and jaguar. The human skull was e'er a popular subject and the finest existing example is carved from the pure crystal. The Aztecs immediate forbears, the Toltecs, were also a war-loving and death-worshipping people, evidenced by the behemothic stone warriors in the pillared temples at Tula, their upper-case letter, and the widespread appearance of the skull-cult and the chacmool - a reclining stone figure begetting a sacrificial bowl on his abdomen. Smaller sculptures exist in the form of figurines of clay or polished jade. The Olmecs hoarded caches of jade figurines and were fond of realistic models of fat babies (run across picture).

Ceramics

Pottery industry was known in Primal America by 2000 BCE, although glazing and the potter'due south cycle were never known. Pots were either fashioned by hand or mould-made and fine polychrome highly burnished wares were being produced by the early on centuries CE. The diversity of form and decoration is immense. Most standard forms produced in the One-time World with a potter's bike were mutual: plate, bowl, jar, vase and beaker with many elaborations of these. Pottery was decorated in a variety of different methods, from stamping, incision, excision, and applique in geometric designs, to polychrome painting of ritual scenes with dignitaries, prisoners and slaves. These latter were particularly common in Maya ceramics. Among the almost beautiful wares produced were those from the Mixteca-Puebla culture in Mexico. Later taken over by the Aztecs, information technology manufactured a type of lacquered polychrome of mainly geometric motifs. Effigy urns and vases were also pop, depicting a diverseness of human, beast and imaginary characters.

Codices and Murals

Hieroglyphic writing had been discovered in Fundamental America by the 1st century CE and was carved principally on commemorative stelae. More recent was the production of codices where pictographs were painted on prepared strips of deer hibernate or bawl material and course the few precious written accounts the Pre-Columbian peoples made of themselves. There are three Maya codices and many more from Mexico. They detail tribal histories and legends and also comprise aspects of daily life and such interesting details as the tribute received for Emperor Montezuma Two from his subjects.

Little mural-painting has survived, simply fine colourful examples exist from cave-paintings of Olmec dating to the more than elaborate ritual scenes from the temple walls at Teotihuacan in Mexico and Bonampak in the Maya Lowlands.

Featherwork and Mosaics

Shields, standards, head-dresses and capes for the nobility were ofttimes created in ornate and colourful lapidary work, from feathers traded from the tropical rain forests. This craft was especially prized in Central America and the best examples that exist today were given in token to the Spanish sovereigns of the Conquistadores.

The inlaying of serpentine, turquoise, malachite and beat to make mosaics was also a pop arts and crafts and is known from Olmec times. The Olmecs are all-time known for their beautiful pavements of inlaid serpentine representing stylised jaguar masks and purposely buried, probably for ritual reasons. The Aztecs created wonderful masks and skulls overlaid with turquoise, malachite and trounce with eyes of iron pyrites. Ane of their most famous mosaic artifacts is the chalcedony-bladed sacrificial pocketknife with inlaid handle in the course of a crouching hawkeye warrior. Larger mosaics decorating the walls of palaces and temples exist in complex geometric motifs; these occur mainly after 800 CE in the architecture of the Maya although fine examples exist at Mitla in United mexican states.

For other 'archaic' artworks, see: Oceanic Art (Pacific Islands) and African Art (North and Sub-Saharan Africa), Ancient Rock Art (Australian Continent).

South America: Andean and Coastal Kingdoms

Chronology of Pre-Columbian South American Fine art

The earliest art in South America appeared at archeological sites such every bit the famous Cueva de las Manos (Cavern of the Easily), which dates dorsum to the era of Mesolithic fine art, around 7,300 BCE.

In the Andean region (nowadays-solar day Peru), the starting time adult culture was the northern Chavin civilization, that flourished 1000-300 BCE. Noted for small-scale ceramics, as well as the magnificent murals, carvings and other artifacts (the Tello Obelisk, the Lanzon and the Raimondi Stela) excavated from its principal religious site of Chavin de Huantar. The Chavin were succeeded by the Moche (c.100-800 CE), who are best remembered for their portrait vases, metallurgy and architecture (such as the Huaca del Sol and the Huaca de la Luna). Meanwhile, on the southern coast of Peru, the Paracas culture - renowned for its textiles - was followed by the Nasca culture, responsible for a South American Renaissance in multi-coloured ceramic art (c.200-750 CE). Later cultures in the Andes included the northern Wari (or Huari) culture, famous for its stone architecture, sculpture and large-calibration painted pottery; the Bolivian Tiwanaku culture (375-700 CE); the Chimu people, noted for their silversmithery and featherwork. (See also: Tribal Art.) Then came the great Inca civilization (flourished 1400-1535), celebrated for its goldsmithing and jewellery fine art, golden/silvery sculpture, and characteristic abstract art, as well as its monumental architecture.

Architecture

Building materials were of either rock or adobe - mud-brick. The one-time is mainly found in the highlands and the latter on the coast where vast urban and defensive complexes were created solely from this material, such as at Chan Chan, uppercase of the Chimu littoral empire in north Peru.

From one thousand BCE, the peoples of Republic of peru were amalgam complex temples and ritual structures, every bit at Chavin de Huantar in the North Highlands where the main temple platform was establish to be honeycombed with labyrinths on at least three levels. The best-known architecture is that of the Inca, who synthetic mighty fortresses. Sacsahuaman well-nigh Cuzco has three ringed zig-zag defences with the basal stones measuring sometimes over 25 anxiety high. Mortar was not used, but perfect joints were made by carefully cut and dressing each stone. Built thus and slightly tapered from base of operations to meridian, they were potent enough to withstand the astringent earthquakes of the region.

Carvings

Every bit with architecture, fine sculpture occurs from effectually 1000 BCE with the Chavin culture. A great white granite monolith over 12 anxiety high was plant at the centre of the temple mound at Chavin de Huantar, at the crossing of the galleries. This "Peachy Image" was carved intricately as a snarling fanged human being-like being with hair of snake-heads and a girdle composed of ophidian-jaguar heads - concepts all central to Chavin and other South American art-styles. Cornices were carved to represent condors with feline attributes or bas-reliefs of felines with snake-like attributes. About the same time, at Cerro Sechin on the declension of Republic of peru, temple walls are composed of monoliths elaborately carved with relief sculpture of warriors and their expressionless or dismembered captives, also a popular theme. Much later effectually 1200 CE at Chan Chan, a very different type of sculpture tin be seen with the mud-plaster friezes on the temple walls, where entirely mythical creatures of dragon-like appearance were represented together with sea-birds and fishes, underlining the importance of the coastal economy hither. In highland Bolivia on the shores of Lake Titicaca, Tiahuanaco, centre of another cracking civilization, displays competence in the execution of whole sculpture and carved reliefs with principal figures also representing snarling man-jaguar beings and condor-headed deities bearing staffs. Heavier whole stone statues of squat, slanting-eyed men are found nearby at Pucara.

See also: How to Appreciate Sculpture. For more than modern works, see: How to Appreciate Modern Sculpture.

Pottery

Pottery manufacture was introduced near 1800 BCE and afterwards periods evidence groovy competence in this field of applied art. All visual forms were mutual and, since the potter's wheel was unknown, were produced by mitt or from moulds. The stirrup bottle and from this grade, the whistling jar, oftentimes decorated with life-like figures of humans and animals, were especially popular. Pottery provided the Pre-Columbian craftsman with 1 of his main types of art and the consequent variety and vitality of form and ornamentation exemplify this. Around 400 CE the Mochica of North Coastal Peru produced vast quantities of finely moulded pots, some in the likeness of local dignitaries, others showing the manifold daily pastimes and occupations of the people from weaving to making dearest. Painted scenes of battles, the parading of nobles and the penalization of naked prisoners were common. Some of the nearly beautiful pots were made on the South Coast of Peru in the Nazca Valley up to 600 CE. Bowls, bridge and spout jars or figurine-urns were normally decorated in vivid burnished polychrome designs of life-similar birds, fishes, animals and people. The Huari-Tiahuanaco culture similarly depended upon ceramics for the spread of its own bold and distinctive art style. Fanged beings with rayed sun-similar head-dresses, snakes and eagles notwithstanding abound. The Incas decorated their pottery in mainly intricate geometric motifs. The aryballus - a large globular jar with pointed base and tall widely everted oral cavity - was a classic Inca form used for the storage and transport of water or the alcoholic potable chicha.

Metalworking

Metalwork appeared in full general use effectually Chavin times, by 900 BCE, although the techniques known were express to hammering, annealing, soldering and repousse working of sheet gold and silver. By Mochica times, every technique was used including casting - uncomplicated and cire perdue - alloying and gilding. By so, metal was used for utilitarian purposes in the product of weapons and agricultural tools likewise equally plate and jewellery. The Chimu of North Littoral Republic of peru were especially known for a high caste of competence in metallurgy, producing quantities of gilded and silver figurines, ceremonial knives, tweezers, earspools, plate, bowls and beakers, many busy with fine repousse designs of gods, animals and mythical creatures. It was from them that the Incas and and then the Spaniards caused much of their wealth. At the Castilian Conquest (1519 CE), S and Middle America were all the same technically in the Bronze Age, having no knowledge of iron working.

Textiles

The uncommonly arid weather of littoral Republic of peru, specially in the south, account for the remarkable state of preservation of organic affair, specially cloth. In the Paracas Peninsula are the cemeteries of a culture whose artisans specialised in weaving intricate and complex designs of many rich colours in cotton and fine alpaca and llama wool, for themselves and for their lords. The Spaniards made comment on the exquisite, fabrics they saw and noted that in Peru, techniques were more than refined than in Europe - a cloth similar to silk being woven for exclusive vesture by the Inca Emperor from the wool of the wild vicuna. Every technique was known: tapestry-art, brocading, embroidery, double-cloth and open up-works being the most favoured. Interlocking motifs of cat heads or double-headed serpents were likewise very popular. As with the decoration of pottery, textiles were oft the medium for the transmission of cult ideas with heavy emphasis on designs representing deity forms. Some of the figures are realistic, but are more frequently highly stylised, befitting to the needs of the weaving technology, and the figures at times seem nigh geometric in their execution. For other crafts, meet Folk Art.

Works of Pre-Columbian art can be seen in many of the all-time art museums around the globe.

• For a chronological guide to the early on arts of the Americas, see: History of Art Timeline.
• For more than about the civilisation of Mesoamerica and Southward America, see: Homepage.

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ENCYCLOPEDIA OF Fine art HISTORY
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